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Traditionally shell-and-tube heat exchangers in chemical industry. The associated utility requirements of the additional units are also eliminated and replaced by the utility requirements of operating the heat exchanger. Here the costs of an additional heating and additional cooling unit are eliminated, and replaced by the cost of a heat exchanger. For example, if a product stream requires cooling, the excess heat can be used to preheat a feed stream that requires heating by using an appropriate heat exchanger. One way to reduce consumption of utilities is to exchange heat between these streams. Process equipment and streams will need to be heated or cooled. Design equations for heat exchangers will use generally use some form of this equation with the appropriate modifications to account for different configurations and approximations. the correction factor is used because most heat exchangers do not implement true countercurrent contact. Is the driving force for a pure countercurrent contact pattern in a tubular system. = log mean temperature difference or the temperature driving force, (temperature) = overall heat-transfer coefficient (energy/time-area-temperature) = heat transferred per unit time (energy/time) Heat transfer across a surface by convection is given by the equation: Conduction and radiation will generally be negligible in large heat exchangers, but radiation will be important in fired heaters. In most heat exchangers, convection will be the dominant mechanism. There are three mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. 3.1.1 Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficient.2.1.4 Environmental, health, and safety considerations and regulations.2.1.1 Thermal and hydraulic requirements.